Continuous Trauma: Our Post 1994 Begrudged Legacy

What is Continuous Trauma? In 1994, South Africans embarked on a collective quest for peace, aiming to foster unity across racial divides and restore dignity and pride to the majority. We envisioned confronting our painful past while acknowledging the fear and mistrust that existed among us. Terms like “reconciliation,” “forgiveness,” “tolerance,” “acceptance,” “equality,” “justice,” and “fairness” resonated in the halls of policy and decision-making. The excitement and optimism were palpable. However, less addressed was the prolonged trauma, violence, and inhumane practices that black people endured under apartheid and colonial rule. Even less discussed was the potential long-term psychological impact of this persistent trauma and structural violence.

In our effort to move past this painful history, there was a choice to overlook the legacy of trauma inherited through generations of colonisation and systemic oppression. The concept of intergenerational trauma was often dismissed as a relic of the past or a concept confined to academia. Consequently, the ongoing psychological effects of historical trauma continue to impact the descendants of those who initially experienced it. This collective trauma, deeply embedded in our cultural memory and shared experiences, has shaped community identity and resilience. Ignoring or silencing the voices of past trauma has proven costly, both profoundly and multifacetedly.

There is a persistent reluctance to recognize how the majority of South Africans grapple with the psychological aftermath of past injustices. This denial means that very few, if any, attempts have been made to address this national and collective trauma. The psychological impact of trauma on individuals includes PTSD, anxiety, and depression, compounded by issues like poverty, unemployment, high crime rates, and gender-based violence, particularly against women and children.

Continuous Traumatic Stress Disorder (CTSD), introduced by South African Clinical Psychologist, Professor Gill Straker in 1987, describes the effects of frequent, high levels of violence linked to civil conflict and political repression. CTSD also applies to:

• Exposure to endemic gang violence and crime
• Ongoing exposure to life threats in high-risk professions such as police, fire, and emergency services
• Prolonged sexual and domestic abuse, especially in children and adolescents

Research on trauma in South Africa reveals a concerning picture. While international statistics show PTSD incidence in Western Europe is between 1-2%, South Africa’s figures are significantly higher. Some estimates place the incidence at around 10%, akin to countries in ongoing conflict. This translates to approximately 6 million South Africans affected. For specific groups, these numbers are alarmingly high:

• A study in Cape Town and Nairobi involving over 2,000 school children found that 80% had experienced severe trauma. In South Africa, 58% witnessed violence, 14% faced physical assault by family members, and 14% encountered sexual assault. Additionally, 22.2% met the criteria for PTSD, with 12.0% having sub-diagnostic PTSD. No significant sex differences were observed in PTSD symptom reporting.
• A study in a rural South African area revealed that 67% of children had been exposed to violence, with 8.4% diagnosed with PTSD.

Confronting Intergenerational Trauma

Addressing the impact of our historical events and intergenerational trauma is uncomfortable but necessary. Ignoring this issue has led to a lack of understanding and empathy across generations, perpetuating trauma through misinformation or erasure of significant historical experiences.

Intergenerational trauma involves the transmission of trauma effects from one generation to the next through psychological, social, and biological pathways. Psychologically, traumatised individuals often exhibit behavioural patterns indicating compromised coping mechanisms, such as anxiety and aggression, which influence their parenting and interactions with their children. Narratives about traumatic events shared within families shape the worldviews and emotional responses of descendants.

Socially, factors like socioeconomic status, community support, and cultural attitudes can reinforce trauma effects across generations. Institutionally, historical trauma from slavery, the Holocaust, and colonisation can lead to systemic discrimination and inequality, perpetuating trauma, as seen in South Africa. Biological studies on epigenetics show that trauma can lead to changes in gene expression, potentially inheritable by offspring. While these changes do not alter DNA, they can be passed to future generations.

Understanding intergenerational trauma and epigenetics sheds light on persistent health and behavioural issues across generations, such as:

• Mental Health Disorders: Depression, anxiety, PTSD
• Physical Health Conditions: Cardiovascular disease, diabetes
• Behavioural Issues: Substance abuse, aggression, violence, risk-taking behaviours as demonstrated in gangsterism, excessively high motor accidents etc.

Recognizing these impacts underscores the need for holistic and long-term healing approaches.

What Can Be Done?

1. Personal and Collective Healing:
   1. Implement strategies and address challenges in healing from continuous trauma at personal and collective levels.
   1. Leverage therapy, community support, and cultural practices for overcoming trauma.
2. Resilience and Survival:
   1. Highlight stories of resilience and strength amidst continuous trauma.
   1. Explore how communities and individuals thrive despite ongoing adversity.
3. Social and Economic Policies:
   1. Address systemic inequality through education and employment opportunities.
   1. Develop social programs to support affected communities.
4. Epigenetic Research:
   1. Conduct further studies to understand specific epigenetic changes in apartheid survivors and their descendants.
   1. Develop interventions to potentially reverse harmful epigenetic modifications.

Conclusion

The legacy of apartheid exemplifies how systemic and continuous trauma can have lasting effects on a population. By examining the interplay between intergenerational trauma and epigenetics, we gain insight into the enduring impact of historical injustices. This understanding is crucial for developing effective interventions that address not only the immediate effects of trauma but also its long-term, multi-generational consequences. Acknowledging and validating the voices of past trauma is essential for breaking the cycle of continuous trauma and fostering healing and resilience.